Journaling for Stress Relief: Evidence-Based Techniques That Actually Work

Chronic stress shows up in the body before it shows up in words: a tight chest, shoulders that never drop, a mind that starts sorting through problems at 2 a.m. It is estimated to affect 77% of Americans on a regular basis, and it contributes to everything from cardiovascular disease and weakened immunity to anxiety disorders and depression.

This guide is about one response to that: journaling for stress relief. Not a diary, and not a record of what you had for lunch — a structured practice with four decades of psychological research behind it. Writing about your thoughts, emotions and experiences can change how your brain handles a stressor, and the research suggests it may lower cortisol reactivity and restore some of the sense of control that chronic stress erodes.

Below: what stress does to the brain, why writing interrupts it, seven techniques with step-by-step instructions, a daily protocol that combines them, how long the studies say it takes, and an honest account of where journaling stops being enough.

• d = 0.47 Average effect size across the 14 studies in Smyth's 1998 meta-analysis — a medium effect
• 15–20 min Session length in the standard expressive-writing paradigm (Baikie & Wilhelm, 2005)
• 4 days Pennebaker's original 1986 protocol: 15 minutes a day, four consecutive days
• 68% Of journaling-intervention outcomes were effective in Sohal and colleagues' 2022 systematic review

Key takeaways

• Chronic stress reshapes the brain. Elevated cortisol enlarges the amygdala and shrinks the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, weakening the faculties you need to manage stress.
• Writing engages your rational brain. Translating chaotic emotion into language activates the prefrontal cortex and reduces amygdala reactivity — a mechanism called affect labeling.
• Seven techniques cover the range of stress. Expressive writing, cognitive restructuring, brain dumps, stress audits, solution-focused journaling, gratitude practice and body scans each target a different mechanism.
• Structure converts venting into processing. Pennebaker's data show health improvements correlate with cognitive-processing language ("realize," "because," "understand") rather than pure emotional release.
• Consistency beats duration. Fifteen minutes of focused, honest writing beats an hour of distracted writing. Even three sessions a week may produce meaningful change.
• Know when to escalate. Persistent symptoms, trauma triggers or thoughts of self-harm warrant professional support.

The neuroscience of stress: what happens in your brain

Understanding what stress does to the brain is not merely academic. It explains precisely why putting words on a page is so effective.

The stress response cascade

When your brain perceives a threat — a looming deadline, a conflict with a loved one, a frightening medical diagnosis — a cascade of neurochemical events unfolds in milliseconds. The amygdala, your brain's threat-detection center, fires an alarm to the hypothalamus, which activates the sympathetic nervous system. That is the fight-or-flight response.

Your adrenal glands flood the bloodstream with cortisol and adrenaline. Heart rate accelerates. Blood pressure rises. Muscles tense. Digestion slows. The prefrontal cortex — the rational, planning part of the brain responsible for executive function — effectively goes offline as resources are diverted to survival circuits.

This evolved to help our ancestors escape predators. The problem is that modern stressors rarely require physical flight. They persist: the difficult boss is there every Monday, the financial pressure does not disappear overnight, the health concern lingers for weeks awaiting test results. When the stress response stays chronically activated and cortisol stays elevated, the consequences are severe. The American Psychological Association's overview of how stress affects the body catalogues the full toll, from immune suppression to cardiovascular damage.

Chronic stress and brain architecture

Prolonged cortisol exposure physically reshapes the brain. Research using neuroimaging has shown that chronic stress causes the changes set out below. The result is a vicious cycle: the more stressed you become, the less equipped your brain is to manage that stress.

How writing interrupts the stress response

The act of translating a chaotic emotional experience into structured language requires the prefrontal cortex. Neuroimaging studies by Matthew Lieberman have demonstrated that labeling emotions through writing — affect labeling — significantly reduces amygdala activation.

A landmark study published in Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience found that participants who wrote about past failures before a psychosocial stressor showed attenuated cortisol reactivity and better performance on sustained attention tasks. Their physiological stress response resembled that of people who had not been exposed to the stressor at all. The writing did not simply make them feel better subjectively; it measurably changed their body's biochemical response.

Writing also creates what neuroscientists call cognitive defusion — a separation between you and your thoughts. A stressful thought swirling in your head feels all-encompassing and inescapable. The same thought written on paper becomes an external object you can examine, evaluate, and choose how to respond to. That shift from experiential to observational mode is one of the core mechanisms behind journaling's effect on stress.

The research foundation: what the studies actually found

The scientific case for journaling to reduce stress rests on controlled studies spanning four decades and thousands of participants across diverse populations.

Pennebaker's original experiment

The modern science of therapeutic writing began in 1986, when Dr. James Pennebaker, a psychology professor at the University of Texas at Austin, ran his first expressive writing experiment. He randomly assigned college students to write either about their deepest thoughts and feelings regarding a traumatic or stressful experience, or about a neutral topic such as their dorm room. The sessions lasted 15 minutes a day for four consecutive days.

Students who wrote about their emotional experiences visited the student health center at roughly half the rate of the control group over the following six months. That single finding launched a field.

In 1997, Pennebaker followed up with studies showing measurable improvements in immune function. Participants who wrote about traumatic experiences showed enhanced T-lymphocyte proliferation and improved antibody response to hepatitis B vaccination. Writing about stress was not just a psychological comfort but a physiologically measurable intervention.

Meta-analyses and systematic reviews

What follows is the evidence base in one place — the studies this article draws on, what each looked at, and what each reported.

The earliest comprehensive meta-analysis of expressive writing was conducted by Smyth in 1998. Its average effect size, d = 0.47, is considered medium in psychological research and is comparable to many established psychotherapy interventions. Baikie and Wilhelm's 2005 systematic review in Advances in Psychiatric Treatment confirmed and expanded those findings across a wide range of physical and psychological outcomes.

The most recent of these, a 2022 systematic review by Sohal and colleagues in Family Medicine and Community Health, is also the most useful for calibrating expectations: most outcomes improved, but not all of them did.

Lepore and Smyth's work on expressive writing documented the theoretical frameworks explaining these effects, including the inhibition-confrontation model, cognitive processing theory and self-regulation theory. Their conclusion was that the benefits extend beyond simple emotional catharsis to genuine cognitive reorganization of stressful experiences.

Why the language you use matters

One of the most striking findings from Pennebaker's research concerns the words people use while journaling. Analysis of thousands of writing samples revealed that the participants who showed the greatest health improvements used increasing numbers of cognitive processing words over the course of their sessions. Words like "realize," "understand," "think," "consider," "because" and "reason" indicated that writers were constructing a coherent narrative, having genuine insights, and finding a path forward.

That matters because it suggests the benefit is not merely about venting. It comes from actively processing stressful experiences — turning fragmented, overwhelming emotional responses into organized, meaningful narratives. This is precisely why structured journaling techniques are generally more effective than unstructured free-writing for stress relief.

The seven techniques at a glance

Each technique targets a different stress mechanism. Pick by symptom, not by preference — if your stress is physical, start with the body scan; if it is a mind that will not stop generating tasks at midnight, start with the worry dump.

Technique 1: Expressive writing (the Pennebaker method)

The most extensively researched journaling technique for stress relief, and the foundation on which many of the others are built. If you are new to stress journaling, start here. For a parallel walkthrough of seven additional techniques, see our companion guide on stress management journaling techniques.

How it works

Expressive writing asks you to write continuously about your deepest thoughts and feelings regarding a stressful or traumatic experience. The emphasis is on emotional depth and honesty, not grammar, spelling or literary quality. The goal is to move past surface-level description of events into the underlying emotions, meanings and connections.

Step by step

1. Set aside 15 to 20 minutes in a quiet, private space where you will not be interrupted. Set a timer so you do not need to watch the clock.
2. Choose a stressful experience that is currently weighing on you — something recent, or something older that still affects you.
3. Write continuously about your deepest thoughts and feelings regarding it. Do not censor yourself. Do not worry about grammar, spelling, or whether it makes sense. If you run out of things to say, repeat what you have already written until new thoughts emerge.
4. Explore it from multiple angles. How does it relate to your identity? How has it affected your relationships? What does it mean for your future? What emotions arise when you think about it?
5. Write for three to four consecutive days. Use the same experience each day, or a different aspect of it. Some people find it helpful to write about the same event from a different perspective each day.
6. After the final session, reflect. Reading back is optional, but notice any shift in how you feel about the experience. Many people report that the emotional intensity has decreased, or that they understand it differently.

If you are dealing with significant anxiety alongside stress, our guide on journaling and reduced anxiety and our practical anxiety journaling techniques are useful companion resources.

Technique 2: Cognitive restructuring journal

This technique draws on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and is particularly effective for stress driven by distorted thinking. If you catastrophize, think in black and white, or assume the worst, cognitive restructuring can be transformative. For a technique-by-technique deep dive, see our complete CBT journaling guide.

How it works

Cognitive restructuring means identifying the automatic negative thoughts attached to your stress, examining the evidence for and against them, and building more balanced alternatives. In written form the process becomes more structured and more effective, because you can see your thought patterns on the page instead of trying to hold them in your head.

Step by step

1. Identify the stressful situation. Write a brief, factual description of what triggered the stress. Stick to observable facts: what happened, where, when, and who was involved.
2. Record your automatic thoughts. What went through your mind? Write down every thought, however irrational it looks. Common stress-related ones include "I cannot handle this," "Everything is falling apart," and "This will never get better."
3. Rate the intensity of your stress from 0 to 100, where 0 is completely calm and 100 is the most stressed you have ever felt.
4. Examine the evidence. For each automatic thought, make two columns: evidence supporting it, and evidence against it. Be thorough and honest in both.
5. Identify the cognitive distortion at work, using the table below. The Beck Institute's free CBT resources offer a comprehensive list.
6. Write a balanced alternative thought. Based on all the evidence, write something more realistic that accounts for both the challenge and your resources. "I cannot handle this" might become "This is very challenging, but I have dealt with difficult situations before and I have people I can ask for support."
7. Re-rate your stress on the same 0-to-100 scale. Most people notice a meaningful decrease, typically between 10 and 30 points.

Why it works for stress

Stress amplifies cognitive distortions. Under pressure, your threat-detection system is hyperactive and you are more likely to read ambiguous situations negatively. The cognitive restructuring journal counteracts that by engaging the prefrontal cortex in deliberate, analytical thinking, effectively overriding the amygdala's alarm. Over time, the practice can rewire habitual thought patterns and make you more resilient.

Technique 3: The worry dump (brain dump)

If your stress manifests as a swirling tornado of worries, tasks and anxious thoughts, the worry dump provides immediate relief. It is one of the simplest techniques here to learn, and can produce noticeable stress reduction in as little as five minutes.

How it works

The worry dump rests on the principle that unfinished tasks and unresolved worries consume cognitive resources through what psychologists call the Zeigarnik effect. Your brain keeps open loops running in the background, constantly reminding you of everything there is to worry about. Externalizing them onto paper frees the bandwidth those loops were consuming.

Step by step

1. Set a timer for 5 to 10 minutes. Any time works, but it is especially effective before bed if racing thoughts keep you awake.
2. Write down every worry, concern, task and anxious thought currently occupying your mind. Do not organize, prioritize or analyze. Short phrases, single words or full sentences — whatever flows.
3. Keep writing until the timer goes off, or until you genuinely cannot think of anything else. Many people are surprised by how much they were carrying.
4. Review the list briefly. Without judging or trying to solve anything, notice what is there — particularly how much is within your control versus outside it.
5. Mark each item "C" or "U" — within your control, or outside it. This single act of categorization often produces a significant shift, because it turns a nebulous cloud of anxiety into a finite, manageable list.
6. Act on the "C" items only. Write one small next step for each. For "U" items, practice acknowledging them and consciously setting them aside.

This kind of externalization appears especially effective for sleep. Scullin et al.'s 2018 study in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General found that writing a to-do list before bed significantly reduced sleep onset time. If stress is disrupting your rest, consider combining this technique with the strategies in our article on sleep tracking and mental health.

Technique 4: The stress audit journal

The previous techniques manage stress in the moment. The stress audit is strategic: it identifies patterns, triggers and root causes so you can change things at the source rather than coping with the same stressor forever.

How it works

The stress audit is a systematic tracking tool that moves you from "generally stressed" to a precise understanding of what specifically triggers your stress, when it is worst, what makes it better, and where you have agency to create change.

What to record each day

Step by step

1. Track daily for at least two weeks, recording the seven fields above at the end of each day. Keep it fast — this stage is data collection, not analysis.
2. Review the fortnight as a whole. Which stressors appear most often? Which have the highest intensity? Are there specific times of day, locations or people associated with elevated stress?
3. Sort every recurring stressor into one of the three categories below.
4. Build an action plan per category — eliminate, adapt, or accept. Each category calls for a different response.

Why this technique is powerful

Most people overestimate the number and severity of their stressors, because a stressed brain is biased toward threat detection. The stress audit often reveals that 80% of your stress comes from a surprisingly small number of sources. That discovery alone can be relieving: a few specific problems feel far more manageable than a vague sense of being overwhelmed by everything.

For a broader self-care practice around stress management, our self-care routine beginner's guide pairs well with what the audit surfaces. Our free stress test can give you a quick numerical baseline to track alongside your entries.

Technique 5: Solution-focused journaling

Solution-focused journaling shifts the emphasis from analyzing problems to generating solutions. Rooted in solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT), it is particularly helpful when stress comes from feeling stuck or powerless.

How it works

Rather than dwelling on what is going wrong and why, solution-focused journaling directs attention to what is going right, what you want instead, and what small steps move you toward it. This harnesses the brain's reticular activating system, which filters information according to what you focus on: focus on solutions and you begin noticing opportunities and resources you previously overlooked.

Step by step

1. Define the stressor in one sentence. Be specific: "I am stressed because my project deadline has been moved up by two weeks and I do not see how I can finish in time."
2. Answer the Miracle Question. A classic SFBT technique: "If I woke up tomorrow and this stress had been completely resolved, what would be different? What would I notice first? How would my day look?" Write in vivid, sensory detail.
3. Identify exceptions. Write about times when this stressor was present but less intense, or when a similar challenge was resolved. What was different? What did you do? What resources did you use?
4. Scale your progress. On a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 is "this problem is at its worst" and 10 is "completely resolved," where are you now? What would moving one point higher look like? What specific action would get you there?
5. List your resources. Skills, knowledge, supportive people, tools, past experiences, strengths. Stress narrows attention; this deliberately broadens it.
6. Commit to one action. Choose one concrete step for the next 24 hours and write it as a specific commitment: "Tomorrow at 9 a.m., I will speak with my manager about prioritizing the three most critical deliverables."

Why it breaks the rumination loop

Rumination — repeatedly rehashing problems without progress toward resolution — is one of the most damaging patterns in chronic stress. Solution-focused journaling interrupts it by redirecting cognitive resources from problem analysis to solution generation. If your journaling keeps circling the same ground, this is the technique to switch to.

Technique 6: Gratitude-based stress relief journaling

Gratitude journaling is sometimes dismissed as simplistic, but the research on its stress-reduction effects is robust. Practiced with depth and specificity, it can shift your brain's stress response by counteracting the negativity bias that chronic stress amplifies.

The science behind gratitude and stress

Chronic stress biases the brain toward detecting threats and problems. Over time this creates a distorted picture in which dangers seem overwhelming and resources seem scarce. Gratitude practice counteracts the distortion by training the brain to notice and encode positive experiences. The seminal Emmons and McCullough study on counting blessings versus burdens first established that this shift produces measurable wellbeing gains.

Research from the Greater Good Science Center at UC Berkeley has demonstrated that gratitude journaling reduces cortisol levels by up to 23%, increases positive emotions, improves sleep quality, and enhances resilience to stress. A systematic review found that three out of four gratitude journaling interventions showed significant improvements in mental health symptomology post-intervention.

Step by step

1. Choose a consistent time each day, ideally in the evening, and write for 5 to 10 minutes.
2. Write about three to five things you are genuinely grateful for today. The key word is "genuinely." Skip generic entries like "I am grateful for my health" in favor of the specific: "I am grateful that my colleague Sarah took ten minutes out of her busy day to help me troubleshoot that database issue. It reminded me that I am not alone in dealing with work challenges."
3. For each entry, explore the why. Why does this matter to you? How did it make you feel? What does it tell you about what is good in your life? This depth of processing is what separates effective gratitude practice from superficial list-making.
4. Include at least one item related to a current stressor. This is the step that connects gratitude specifically to stress relief. Even in your most stressful situation there is usually something to appreciate: a lesson learned, a strength you discovered, a person who helped, or the fact that you are still showing up. Finding gratitude within stress does not minimize the difficulty — it broadens the picture to include the rest of it.
5. Notice the shift. After writing, pause and observe how your body feels. Many people notice a softening of tension, a slower heartbeat, or a general sense of warmth — signs that the parasympathetic nervous system is activating.

Gratitude journaling is one of the many benefits of daily journaling for mental health, and practiced consistently it can serve as a foundation for overall well-being. For a deeper dive, see our guide on the science-backed benefits of gratitude journaling.

Technique 7: Body scan journaling

Body scan journaling bridges mindfulness practice and written reflection. It is particularly effective for people who experience stress primarily as physical symptoms — chronic tension, headaches, digestive issues, muscle pain — and who may not be aware of the emotional components driving them.

How it works

This technique combines the somatic awareness of a mindfulness body scan with the cognitive processing benefits of journaling. Attending systematically to physical sensations and then writing about them builds a bridge between bodily experience and emotional understanding, often uncovering stress you did not realize you were carrying.

Step by step

1. Sit comfortably and close your eyes for 2 to 3 minutes. Take several slow, deep breaths, then scan from the top of your head to the tips of your toes, noticing tension, discomfort, tightness or unusual sensation. Change nothing; simply observe. Our guided breathing exercise is a useful way to settle the nervous system first.
2. Open your eyes and write what you noticed. Be specific about location, quality and intensity: "I notice a tight band of tension across my forehead, like a headband being pulled too tight. My jaw is clenched. My shoulders are up near my ears. There is a heavy, knotted feeling in my stomach."
3. Ask each area of tension what it is holding. Write freely about the emotions, memories or stressors that might connect to that sensation. You might find that shoulder tension is tied to an upcoming presentation, or that the knot in your stomach relates to an unresolved conflict with a family member.
4. Dialogue with the sensation. This feels unusual at first, but it is used in several therapeutic modalities. Write as though you are talking with the tense area: "What do you need? What are you trying to tell me? What would help you release?" Then write whatever response comes, uncensored.
5. Close with a compassionate message to your body. Acknowledge the stress it has been carrying and appreciate the ways it has been trying to protect you. Drawing on Kristin Neff's research on self-compassion, this step has been shown to activate the parasympathetic nervous system. For more prompts in this vein, try our self-compassion journal prompts.
6. Do a brief second scan and note any changes. Many people find that simply acknowledging and writing about physical tension produces a noticeable reduction in discomfort.

If you are new to body awareness practices, the techniques in our 5-minute mindfulness exercises guide are a good place to start before adding the journaling component.

A daily stress journaling protocol

Seven techniques is a menu, not a schedule. The protocol below combines them into a routine that is realistic to keep, with each technique placed where it does the most good — externalizing at the start of the day, processing at the end of it, and deeper work once a week.

Morning session (10 to 15 minutes)

1. Body scan check-in (2 minutes). Before writing, close your eyes and scan your body. Notice where you are holding tension from yesterday, or in anticipation of today. Write 2 to 3 sentences about what you notice physically.
2. Worry dump (3 to 5 minutes). Write down every worry, concern or stressful thought present as you start the day. Get it all out, then mark each item "C" (within your control) or "U" (outside it).
3. Solution-focused intention (3 to 5 minutes). Take the most pressing controllable stressor from the dump. What would resolution look like? What is one small step you can take today? What resources do you have? End with a specific action commitment.

Evening session (10 to 15 minutes)

1. Stress audit entry (3 to 5 minutes). Record the day's stressors: what triggered them, how intense they were from 1 to 10, how you responded, and what helped. This is what builds long-term pattern awareness.
2. Cognitive restructuring (3 to 5 minutes). Take the most distressing thought of the day. Write it down, examine the evidence for and against it, name the distortion, and write a balanced alternative.
3. Gratitude close (2 to 3 minutes). Three specific things you are grateful for today, including at least one connected to a stressor. Explore why each matters.

Weekly deep dive (20 to 30 minutes)

1. Expressive writing session. Take the most significant stressor of the week and write about your deepest thoughts and feelings regarding it, following the Pennebaker method. Explore fully, without censoring.
2. Stress audit review. Look back at the week's daily entries and identify patterns. Which stressors recurred? Which coping strategies worked? What do you want to change next week?
3. Progress reflection. How has your relationship with stress shifted since you began? What insights have you gained? What are you learning about yourself?

Making it sustainable

The most effective journaling practice is the one you actually maintain.

How long it takes: setting realistic expectations

The most common question about journaling for stress is how long before it helps. The honest answer is that it depends — but the research offers benchmarks.

Many people notice subtle shifts after their first session, particularly with the worry dump, which can produce immediate cognitive relief. A randomized controlled trial on positive affect journaling found reduced anxiety by the end of the first month, with reduced mental distress and improved perceived resilience also appearing within the first four weeks.

Research suggests more significant and lasting changes in stress response patterns typically require four to six weeks of consistent practice. Pennebaker's original studies used a protocol of just four days at 15 minutes per day and found effects lasting up to six months — which suggests even brief, intensive periods of journaling may produce durable benefits.

The key insight is that consistency matters more than duration. Fifteen minutes of focused, emotionally engaged writing will do more than an hour of distracted, surface-level writing. Quality and emotional authenticity are what drive the change.

Common pitfalls and how to avoid them

Several common mistakes can undermine journaling's effectiveness for stress relief. Four of them are set out below, each with a specific fix.

The first of these is worth dwelling on, because it is the hardest to spot from the inside. Processing means exploring your emotions, seeking understanding, and moving toward resolution. Rumination means rehashing the same distressing thoughts without movement or insight. The writing can look identical. The test is whether anything has changed by the end of the entry.

When journaling is not enough

The evidence for journaling is strong, but there are circumstances in which it is not sufficient on its own and professional support is necessary. Consider seeking professional help if:

• Your stress has persisted at high levels for more than a few weeks despite consistent use of these techniques.
• You are experiencing symptoms of clinical anxiety or depression — persistent hopelessness, loss of interest in things you once enjoyed, significant changes in sleep or appetite, difficulty concentrating, or withdrawal from relationships.
• Journaling about certain experiences consistently triggers overwhelming emotional responses, flashbacks or dissociation, which may indicate unprocessed trauma that requires professional guidance.
• You are using substances such as alcohol, drugs or food to manage stress.
• Your stress is significantly interfering with your ability to function at work, maintain relationships, or care for yourself.

Journaling is a complement to therapy, not a replacement for it. A journal can strengthen therapeutic work by helping you track patterns, process between sessions, and practice techniques discussed in session — and if you are currently in therapy, sharing what your journal surfaces with your therapist can deepen the work.

A licensed therapist can provide personalized assessment, evidence-based treatment for clinical conditions, and support for processing experiences that are too intense or complex to work through alone. There is real strength in recognizing when you need more support and asking for it.

Journaling inside a wider stress-management plan

Journaling is among the most accessible and best-researched stress management tools available, and it works best as part of a broader approach. Each of the practices below does something writing cannot.

Treat journaling as the reflective hub of the whole practice: the place where you process, plan, and track how well everything else is working. Combined with movement, mindfulness, connection and adequate sleep, it becomes part of a system rather than an isolated habit.

Getting started today

You now know why writing about stress works: it engages the prefrontal cortex, reduces amygdala reactivity, may lower cortisol reactivity, and turns fragmented emotional experience into coherent, manageable narrative. You have seven techniques, each suited to a different part of the stress experience, and a protocol that weaves them together.

But the relief comes from writing, not from reading about writing. So before you close this page: take out a piece of paper, open a new document, or use whichever journaling app you have, and spend five minutes on a worry dump. Write down every stressful thought currently occupying your mind. Then mark each one "C" for controllable or "U" for uncontrollable.

Five minutes. That is all it takes to begin, and if four decades of psychological research are any indication, those five minutes could be the start of a different relationship with stress.

Ready to go deeper? Explore our companion guides on stress management journaling techniques, structured CBT journaling, and journaling for anxiety. Then start your free MindJrnl account and put one of today's techniques into practice tonight — guided prompts, mood tracking and pattern insights make it easier to keep showing up.

Written by the MindJrnl team. We are not clinicians, and nothing here is a substitute for care from someone who knows you and your history. The research we draw on is named in the text, with a link or a full citation where we have one, so you can check it yourself; our editorial standards explain how we research, source and correct what we publish.

References

• Pennebaker, J. W. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 274-281.
• Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8(3), 162-166.
• Smyth, J. M. (1998). Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 174-184.
• Baikie, K. A., & Wilhelm, K. (2005). Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 11(5), 338-346.
• Lepore, S. J., & Smyth, J. M. (2002). The Writing Cure: How Expressive Writing Promotes Health and Emotional Well-Being. American Psychological Association.
• Pennebaker, J. W. (2018). Expressive writing in psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 226-229.
• Niles, A. N., Haltom, K. E. B., Mulvenna, C. M., Lieberman, M. D., & Stanton, A. L. (2014). Randomized controlled trial of expressive writing for psychological and physical health: The moderating role of emotional expressivity. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 27(1), 1-17.
• Smyth, J. M., Johnson, J. A., Auer, B. J., Lehman, E., Talamo, G., & Sciamanna, C. N. (2018). Online positive affect journaling in the improvement of mental distress and well-being in general medical patients with elevated anxiety symptoms. JMIR Mental Health, 5(4), e11290.
• Sohal, M., Singh, P., Dhillon, B. S., & Gill, H. S. (2022). Efficacy of journaling in the management of mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Family Medicine and Community Health, 10(1).